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1 1 (January 15, 2021)

handle is hein.crs/govebqz0001 and id is 1 raw text is: SCongressional Rsearch Service 0 Updated January 15, 2021 Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations Military operations, both in peacetime and in war, are an inherently complex undertaking. One key to success, therefore, is a clear, unified chain of command. This enables senior leaders in the U.S. government-in particular, the President and the Secretary of Defense-to command and control military forces around the world. A (Very) Brief History of the Chain of Command The way that the United States commands and controls its forces is in large part a product of an inherent tension between improving the effectiveness of U.S. forces, on the one hand, and preserving civilian control of the military, on the other. The experience of World War II convinced President Truman, among others, that a greater degree of coordination and integration between the U.S. military services was necessary to improve the conduct of military operations. Yet there was concern at the time that integrating these institutions might result in an overly powerful military staff element that could threaten the principle of civilian control of U.S. forces. The resulting compromise was to create a Joint Chiefs of Staff, comprising all the military service chiefs, and headed by a Chairman, serving as an advisory body only. As a corporate body, it was specifically not designed to exercise command; the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) had no command authority. The Joint Chiefs of Staff did, however, have responsibility for establishing unified combatant commands, which were charged with executing military operations in different parts of the world and combining the capabilities of two or more military services. Different service chiefs were assigned executive and administrative responsibilities for these combatant commands, which gave them a de facto mechanism through which they could influence ongoing military operations. By 1953, the authority to establish Combatant Commands (COCOMs) was assigned to the Secretary of Defense, although the relative ambiguity of the chain of command remained a feature of DOD operations until 1986. Perceived shortcomings in the U.S. chain of command led to demonstrable failures during several incidents in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The military services, in the view of many observers, failed to effectively plan or conduct operations jointly due to confusion over whether the military services or unified combatant commanders were ultimately in charge of operations. These incidents include the operation in Grenada; the Iranian hostage rescue attempt (often referred to as Desert One); and the bombing of the Marine Barracks in Beirut, Lebanon. In 1986, Congress passed the Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reform Act (P.L. 99-433), which mandated clarifications to the chain of command. The current command and control architecture for DOD is a product of these congressionally mandated changes. The Chain of Command Title 10 U.S.C. §162 specifies that the chain of command for military operations goes from the President, to the Secretary of Defense, to Commanders of Combatant Commands. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff acts as an intermediary, transmitting orders between the Secretary of Defense and the Commanders of Combatant Commands. Each Combatant Commander is a four-star Flag or General Officer, whose appointment is confirmed by the Senate. Unified Command Plan (UCP) The UCP is a classified executive branch document that articulates how DOD assigns responsibility for different missions and areas of the world. It is prepared by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff every two years and approved by the President. Each UCP sets forth basic guidance to all unified combatant commanders; establishes their missions, responsibilities, and force structure; delineates the general geographical area of responsibility for geographic combatant commanders; and specifies functional responsibilities for functional combatant commanders. Congress is not included in this review process but does have visibility into issues affecting UCP development. It is through the UCP that the Department of Defense develops its global map of areas of responsibilities for its Combatant Commanders, reflected below. Figure I. Combatant Commanders' Area of Responsibility Source: U.S. Department of Defense. Of note, USPACOM is now referred to as USINDOPACOM. The Combatant Commands Today A COCOM is a military command with broad continuing missions under a single commander and composed of significant assigned components of two or more military departments. There are currently eleven Combatant Commands. The COCOMs, and by extension their commanders, have responsibility for the military's ttps://crsrepo rtscong ress~go

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