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1 1 (May 19, 2020)

handle is hein.crs/govdamk0001 and id is 1 raw text is: FF. May 19, 2020 Considering the Source: Varieties of COVID-19 Information In common parlance, the terms propaganda, misinformation, and disinformation are often used interchangeably, often with connotations of deliberate untruths of nefarious origin. In a national security context, however, these terms refer to categories of information that are created and disseminated with different intent and serve different strategic purposes. This primer examines these categories to create a framework for understanding the national security implications of information related to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. There is no commonly accepted definition for what constitutes propaganda. To some, it connotes the spread of false information from a governmental source, intended to have persuasive effects. For others, propaganda is merely any promotional material related to organizations both public and commercial. For purposes of this discussion, propaganda is defined as the intentional propagation of an idea or narrative in order to influence and persuade a target audience. Although it may contain factual information, propaganda is intended to persuade rather than merely to inform. By this definition, an organization or government communicating its intent, policies, and values through speeches, press releases, and other public affairs can be considered propaganda. Some forms of propaganda present selective information that is intended to manage perceptions of the truth. Other forms may be unverifiable rhetorical devices, such as slogans, illustrations, editorials, and opinion pieces that lack factual content. These communications can create perceptions that affect behavior and steer decisionmakers toward a certain course of action. Misinformation is unintentionally false information. Examples include unfounded conspiracy theories, rumors, and web hoaxes spread through social media by users believing them to be true. Misinformation may be the result of laypersons' misinterpretations of scientific material. In some cases, misinformation results from theoretical preliminary scientific research being interpreted as accepted fact. In other cases, the scientific material may be well- researched and documented, but later proven to rely on faulty premises. Major news outlets and governmental sources sometimes unintentionally spread misinformation by reporting on rapidly changing events. While the reporting itself may be caveated as unconfirmed, the information contained therein may then be widely disseminated by well-intended users and platforms. Though unintentional, misinformation can have the effect of exacerbating societal divisions and creating chaos, as the truth becomes more difficult to discern. Unlike misinformation, disinformation is intentionally false, intending to deceive the recipient. In the international security context, governments and foreign actors seek to use disinformation to their advantage. Examples of disinformation include covertly planting deliberately false news stories in the media, or altering private and/or classified communications before their widespread public release. Coordinated disinformation campaigns often seek to exploit existing fissures within certain demographics, causing further political polarization and the erosion of trust in public institutions. These campaigns may cause decision paralysis, where decisionmakers are overwhelmed with contradictory or otherwise unreliable information. Some disinformation may be easily detected and discredited, such as fraudulent accounts or suspicious news media websites that may be full of typographical errors. Some viral videos and images give the appearance of documentation, but in reality have been computer-generated or altered in a way that is virtually undetectable to the naked eye. These deep fakes are an example of disinformation that is increasingly ubiquitous and particularly difficult to combat. Psychological phenomenon such as confirmation bias, defined as the tendency of individuals to interpret new information as confirmation of their existing beliefs, may render attempts to discredit sources of disinformation ineffectual. Disinformation may continue to spread throughout cyberspace even after it has been exposed as false. sk~rce c ybe§: a, KeS.~c dsurn fr Cyberspace presents a force multiplier for groups in other countries seeking to amplify a message or narrative. Through the use of social media platforms, all three forms of information discussed here may proliferate throughout the internet, with the combined effect of fomenting discord and confusion. Much of today's information is transmitted in cyberspace, leading many to associate information operations with cybersecurity. Yet on its own, cybersecurity, if defined as securing cyberspace from attack, may be insufficient to prevent the spread of potentially harmful information. While cyberspace is the medium for information transmission, cyberspace operations can be used to achieve strategic goals. For example, an offensive cyberattack on sources of information may be used to create psychological effects such as doubt and mistrust. A cyberattack may be a demonstration of ability, intended to project power through cyberspace regardless of the level of sophistication evident K~:> p\w gnom ggmm mppm qq\ a , q 'S I 11LULANUALiN,

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