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523 Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci. 7 (1992)

handle is hein.cow/anamacp0523 and id is 1 raw text is: PREFACE For the purpose of this issue of The Annals, affirmative action is defined as a conscious effort to increase the representation of women and other desig- nated groups in particular organizations, occupations, programs, and a wide range of activities. Such activities include education and training; housing and transportation; and the award of contracts, grants, licenses, degrees, scholarships, honors, and appointments to governing boards and political or judicial posts. The groups most commonly selected for affirmative action include women; four officially defined minority groups-blacks who are not Hispanic; white and black Hispanics; Asians and Pacific Islanders; and American Indians and Alaskan Natives-and persons with disabilities. Affirmative action may be voluntary or mandated by court order, regula- tion, contract, or local law. It may aim to increase the representation of most, some, or one of the groups named previously. Representation is assessed by comparing the proportion of group members in the national or local popula- tion or in a population with stated educational or occupational qualifications with the proportion in a given activity, occupation, firm, or institution. How- ever, opinion is sharply divided about the degree to which broad educational or occupational statistics can measure the composition of the qualified pop- ulation or coincide with the qualifications required for particular positions. Affirmative action programs may aim not merely to replicate the propor- tion of qualified group members in given positions and firms but to raise that proportion and improve the group's status to match that of white males, the principal group excluded from these programs. However, Butler reports, in his contribution to this volume, that efforts are being made to recruit more white males to counterbalance the overrepresentation of African Americans in the armed forces. Current programs have many sources: presidential orders requiring affir- mative hiring by federal contractors; court orders requiring affirmative mea- sures to end segregation and remedy discrimination; legislation barring dis- crimination. Protests, political and economic pressure, and legal action by members and supporters of affected groups have prompted many affirmative measures, as have voluntary actions by individuals and organizations seek- ing social peace and justice. Affirmative action is contentious. Supporters see it as a means to offset not only the damages that discrimination has inflicted on individuals but the institutionalized forms and processes that have perpetuated the low status of entire groups, even without any manifest discrimination against individ- uals. Opponents believe it attributes to discrimination differences in group status that have many causes, and that to award jobs and benefits by group statistics rather than individual merit or need is unjust, lowers standards and organizational effectiveness, and fosters social divisiveness. 7

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